The COVID-19 pandemic, triggered by the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in late 2019, rapidly escalated into a global health crisis. In response, researchers across disciplines intensified efforts to understand the biological, environmental, and nutritional determinants of disease transmission and clinical outcomes. Micronutrient status, immune competence, and vaccine development emerged as central themes.
Geir Bjørklund, MD, has made significant contributions to this interdisciplinary research, with a particular focus on nutritional and environmental medicine. His work has highlighted the immunological relevance of trace elements such as zinc, selenium, copper, and iron. These micronutrients, which help maintain redox balance and regulate cytokine responses, have been investigated for their potential role in modulating COVID-19 severity, particularly among older adults and individuals with comorbidities.
Bjørklund has co-authored several international studies examining how deficiencies in essential micronutrients may impair immune function. These findings suggest that targeted nutritional supplementation may enhance host defense and be associated with milder disease trajectories, although randomized controlled trials are necessary to establish causality. One study investigated persistent alterations in red blood cell rheology following mild SARS-CoV-2 infection, linking microvascular dysfunction to post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (PACS) and emphasizing the roles of systemic inflammation and hypercoagulability. In vitro effects of recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins on erythrocyte integrity, underscoring the importance of variant-specific controls and methodological precision in hematological studies.
In related work, Bjørklund has contributed to investigations of adjunctive therapeutic strategies involving micronutrients such as vitamin D, ascorbic acid, magnesium, B-complex vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. While emerging data suggest associations between adequate nutrient status and improved clinical outcomes, further controlled trials are required to determine their role in treatment protocols.
His research also extends to botanical compounds. Co-authored reviews have examined phytochemicals, particularly those used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine, for their antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. Natural agents such as quercetin have been evaluated for potential therapeutic benefit and enhanced bioavailability through nanoparticle delivery systems. While these findings remain exploratory, they indicate promising directions for integrative approaches.
Bjørklund’s contribution to vaccine research is reflected in a 2024 book chapter that reviewed the rapid development of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. The chapter covered mRNA-based platforms such as Pfizer-BioNTech’s BNT162b2 and Moderna’s mRNA-1273, highlighting their efficacy in reducing severe disease and mortality. It also addressed persistent challenges, including global inequities in vaccine access and vaccine hesitancy, which remain obstacles to achieving widespread immunization.
Another dimension of his work focused on genetic and epigenetic susceptibility to COVID-19. A systematic review co-authored by Bjørklund investigated the roles of HLA polymorphisms, ACE2 receptor expression, and ABO blood group antigens in modulating infection risk and immune response. These insights support the potential of personalized healthcare strategies that integrate genomic data with clinical risk profiles.
Environmental exposures were also central to his research. Studies examined how air pollutants such as tropospheric ozone, particulate matter, and toxic metal burdens may affect immune function and contribute to geographic disparities in disease burden. For example, an investigation into the regional distribution of COVID-19 in Italy proposed that environmental factors, combined with allergic susceptibility, may have contributed to the observed bimodal incidence pattern.
In structural biology, Bjørklund collaborated on in silico modeling studies that mapped interactions between SARS-CoV-2 proteins and human zinc-binding E3 ubiquitin ligases. These analyses suggested that viral proteins, particularly orf8, may disrupt host immune signaling by targeting zinc-coordinated RING domains. A related study identified 58 human metalloproteins potentially affected by viral interference, raising the possibility of broader perturbations in cellular metal homeostasis.
As founder of the Council for Nutritional and Environmental Medicine, Bjørklund has fostered interdisciplinary collaboration across immunology, toxicology, virology, and nutrition. His advocacy for integrative public health strategies, including nutritional optimization, reduction of environmental toxicants, and early therapeutic intervention, has helped shape broader frameworks for pandemic preparedness and response.
In summary, Geir Bjørklund’s research during the COVID-19 pandemic provides a comprehensive perspective on the interplay between nutrition, environment, and molecular biology in shaping disease outcomes. His work supports the development of evidence-informed strategies to enhance immune function, guide clinical management, and inform future public health policy.
References
Benahmed AG, Gasmi A, Anzar W, Arshad M, Bjørklund G. Improving safety in dental practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Technol (Berl). 2022;12(1):205-214. doi:10.1007/s12553-021-00627-6
Bjørklund G, Drapak I, Zimenkovsky B, Shanaida M, Kobylinska L, Denefil O, Lysiuk R, Pokryshko O, Logoyda L, Oliinyk P, Shanaida V, Semenova Y. The role of vitamins, magnesium, and trace elements in COVID-19 treatment and post-COVID-19 rehabilitation: an updated overview. Curr Med Chem. Published online May 20, 2024. doi:10.2174/0109298673301578240515095227
Bjørklund G, Lysiuk R, Semenova Y, Lenchyk L, Dub N, Doşa MD, Hangan T. Herbal substances with antiviral effects: features and prospects for the treatment of viral diseases with emphasis on pro-inflammatory cytokines. Curr Med Chem. 2024;31(4):393-409. doi:10.2174/0929867330666230125121758
Bjørklund G, Lysiuk R, Butnariu M, Lenchyk L, Sharma V, Sharma R, Martins N. Low prevalence of COVID-19 in Laos and Cambodia: does diet play a role? Acta Med Leopoliensia. 2022;28(1-2):161-180. doi:10.25040/aml2022.1-2.161
Bjørklund G, Tirelli U, Chirumbolo S, Valdenassi L. Effect of SARS-CoV2 S protein on red blood cells parameters. Some comments. Biomed J. Published online April 22, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.bj.2025.100857
Chasapis CT, Georgiopoulou AK, Perlepes SP, Bjørklund G, Peana M. A SARS-CoV-2 -human metalloproteome interaction map. J Inorg Biochem. 2021;219:111423. doi:10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2021.111423
Chasapis CT, Perlepes SP, Bjørklund G, Peana M. Structural modeling of protein ensembles between E3 RING ligases and SARS-CoV-2: The role of zinc binding domains. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2023;75:127089. doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.127089
Chirumbolo S, Bjørklund G. The bimodal SARS-CoV-2 outbreak in Italy as an effect of environmental and allergic causes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(2):331-332. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2020.05.011
Chirumbolo S, Bjørklund G. Wheat and chaffs in the interpretation of the current COVID19 outbreak in Italy. Virusdisease. 2020;31(2):85-93. doi:10.1007/s13337-020-00602-1
Dadar M, Fakhri Y, Bjørklund G, Shahali Y. The association between the incidence of COVID-19 and the distance from the virus epicenter in Iran. Arch Virol. 2020;165(11):2555-2560. doi:10.1007/s00705-020-04774-5
Gasmi A, Benahmed AG, Dadar M, Mujawdiya P, Bjørklund G. Optimizing the antimicrobial effects by using natural compounds in COVID-19 management. Curr Med Chem. Published online May 23, 2024. doi:10.2174/0109298673294083240520044158
Gasmi A, Chirumbolo S, Peana M, Noor S, Menzel A, Dadar M, Bjørklund G. The role of diet and supplementation of natural products in COVID-19 prevention. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2022;200(1):27-30. doi:10.1007/s12011-021-02623-3
Gasmi A, Kanwal S, Oliinyk P, Lysiuk R, Shanaida M, Gasmi Benahmed A, Dushmantha WKT, Arshad M, Kernychna I, Lenchyk L, Upyr T, Shanaida V, Bjørklund G. Ayurvedic and Chinese herbs against coronaviruses. Curr Pharm Des. 2024;30(21):1681-1698. doi:10.2174/0113816128269864231112094917
Gasmi A, Kassym L, Menzel A, Anzar W, Dadar M, Semenova Y, Arshad M, Bihunyak T, Meguid NA, Peana M, Bekbergenova Z, Bjørklund G. Genetic and epigenetic determinants of COVID-19 susceptibility: a systematic review. Curr Med Chem. 2025;32(4):753-770. doi:10.2174/0109298673267890231221100659
Gasmi A, Mujawdiya PK, Lysiuk R, Shanaida M, Peana M, Gasmi Benahmed A, Beley N, Kovalska N, Bjørklund G. Quercetin in the prevention and treatment of coronavirus infections: a focus on SARS-CoV-2. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2022;15(9):1049. doi:10.3390/ph15091049
Gasmi A, Noor S, Dadar M, Semenova Y, Menzel A, Gasmi Benahmed A, Bjørklund G. The role of traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese pharmacopoeia in the evaluation and treatment of COVID-19. Curr Pharm Des. 2024;30(14):1060-1074. doi:10.2174/0113816128217263240220060252
Gasmi A, Noor S, Menzel A, Khanyk N, Semenova Y, Lysiuk R, Beley N, Bolibrukh L, Gasmi Benahmed A, Storchylo O, Bjørklund G. Potential drugs in COVID-19 management. Curr Med Chem. 2024;31(22):3245-3264. doi:10.2174/0929867331666230717154101
Gasmi A, Noor S, Tippairote T, Dadar M, Menzel A, Bjørklund G. Individual risk management strategy and potential therapeutic options for the COVID-19 pandemic. Clin Immunol. 2020;215:108409. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2020.108409
Gasmi A, Peana M, Noor S, Lysiuk R, Menzel A, Gasmi Benahmed A, Bjørklund G. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of COVID-19: the never-ending story. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2021;105(4):1333-1343. doi:10.1007/s00253-021-11094-4
Gasmi A, Semenova Y, Noor S, Nehaoua A, Malek R, Malek H, Bjørklund G. COVID-19 vaccine strategies. In: International and Life Course Aspects of COVID-19. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier; 2024:25-34. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-95649-9.00003-3
Gasmi A, Peana M, Pivina L, Srinath S, Gasmi Benahmed A, Semenova Y, Menzel A, Dadar M, Bjørklund G. Interrelations between COVID-19 and other disorders. Clin Immunol. 2021;224:108651. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2020.108651
Gasmi A, Semenova Y, Noor S, Benahmed AG, Bjørklund G. Sleep, dietary melatonin supplementation, and COVID-19. Curr Med Chem. 2024;31(11):1298-1314. doi:10.2174/0929867330666230224093849
Gasmi A, Srinath S, Dadar M, Pivina L, Menzel A, Benahmed AG, Chirumbolo S, Bjørklund G. A global survey in the developmental landscape of possible vaccination strategies for COVID-19. Clin Immunol. 2022;237:108958. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2022.108958
Gasmi A, Tippairote T, Mujawdiya PK, Peana M, Menzel A, Dadar M, Gasmi Benahmed A, Bjørklund G. Micronutrients as immunomodulatory tools for COVID-19 management. Clin Immunol. 2020;220:108545. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2020.108545
Gasmi A, Tippairote T, Mujawdiya PK, Gasmi Benahmed A, Menzel A, Dadar M, Bjørklund G. Neurological involvements of SARS-CoV2 infection. Mol Neurobiol. 2021;58(3):944-949. doi:10.1007/s12035-020-02070-6
Gasmi A, Tippairote T, Mujawdiya PK, Menzel A, Lysiuk R, Shanaida M, Lenchyk L, Peana M, Bjørklund G. Traditional Chinese medicine as the preventive and therapeutic remedy for COVID-19. Curr Med Chem. 2024;31(21):3118-3131. doi:10.2174/0929867330666230331084126
Gasmi A, Tippairote T, Mujawdiya PK, Peana M, Menzel A, Dadar M, Benahmed AG, Bjørklund G. The microbiota-mediated dietary and nutritional interventions for COVID-19. Clin Immunol. 2021;226:108725. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2021.108725
Hosnedlova B, Werle J, Cepova J, Narayanan VHB, Vyslouzilova L, Fernandez C, Parikesit AA, Kepinska M, Klapkova E, Kotaska K, Stepankova O, Bjorklund G, Prusa R, Kizek R. Electrochemical sensors and biosensors for identification of viruses: a critical review. Crit Rev Anal Chem. Published online May 16, 2024:1-30. doi:10.1080/10408347.2024.2343853
Pandolfi S, Chirumbolo S, Ricevuti G, Valdenassi L, Bjørklund G, Lysiuk R, Doşa MD, Lenchyk L, Fazio S. Home pharmacological therapy in early COVID-19 to prevent hospitalization and reduce mortality: Time for a suitable proposal. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2022;130(2):225-239. doi:10.1111/bcpt.13690
Pandolfi S, Valdenassi L, Bjørklund G, Chirumbolo S, Lysiuk R, Lenchyk L, Doşa MD, Fazio S. COVID-19 medical and pharmacological management in the European countries compared to Italy: an overview. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(7):4262. doi:10.3390/ijerph19074262
Pazara L, Tudorache M, Dusa D, Bjørklund G, Dadar M, Doşa MD, Chirumbolo S, Cambrea C. Prolonged alterations in red blood cell rheology following mild SARS-CoV-2 infection: Implications for microvascular health. Clin Immunol. Published online April 30, 2025;277:110511. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2025.110511
Tippairote T, Peana M, Chirumbolo S, Bjørklund G. Individual risk management strategy for SARS-CoV-2 infection: A step toward personalized healthcare. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;96:107629. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107629